Η πύκνωση των αεροχώρων και η εικόνα θαμβής υάλου είναι βασικά ευρήματα από την HRCT σε σειρά παθολογικών καταστάσεων |εικόνα θαμβής υάλου|.
εικόνα θαμβής υάλου/ορυκτής υάλου
Η εικόνα θαμβής (ή ορυκτής) υάλου αναφέρεται σε νεφελοειδή επίταση της ακτινολογικής πυκνότητας περιοχής του πνευμονικού παρεγχύματος, που δεν αποκρύπτει τους υποκείμενους αγγειακούς σχηματισμούς. Εάν τα υποκείμενα αγγεία ασαφοποιούνται, τότε η βλάβη ονομάζεται "πύκνωση" (1,2). Η εικόνα θαμβής υάλου παράγεται από μορφολογικές διαταραχές, κάτω από το αναλυτικό όριο της HRCT και μπορεί να αντανακλά περιορισμένη πάχυνση του διάμεσου ιστού ή των κυψελιδικών τοιχωμάτων, την παρουσία υγρού ή κυττάρων εντός των κυψελιδικών αεροχώρων, ή αύξηση του αίματος εντός των κυψελιδικών τριχοειδών (3,4,5,6,7). Το εύρημα αυτό αναγνωρίζεται σε πολλές παθολογικές καταστάσεις, όπως εκείνες που εμφανίζονται με κυψελιδική κατάληψη με υγρό ή κύτταρα, ή περιορισμένη πνευμονική ίνωση, και είναι, επομένως, μη ειδική. Οξέα άιτια εικόνων θμαβής υάλου αναγνωρίζονται επί πνευμονικού οιδήματος πνευμονικής αιμορραγίας, ιογενούς πνευμονίας, διάχυτης κυψελιδικής βλάβης ή πνευμονίας εξ υπερευαισθησίας (εικόνα 2).
εικόνα 2.Πρότυπο ενίσχυσης ακτινολογικής πυκνότητας, επί αξονικής τομογραφίας. (a) εμβαλωματικές περιοχές ενισχύσεως "θαμβής υάλου" αναγνωρίζεται επί ασθενούς με κυψελιδική αιμορραγία, δευτεροπαθούς σε πνευμονική αγγειΐτιδα επί κοκκιωματώσεως Wegener. Σημειώνεται ότι τα υποκείμενα αγγεία διαγράφονται ικανοποιητικά (αντίθετα, παρ΄ό,τι επί πυκνώσως). (b) Στην εικόνα αυτή διακρίνονται ευρύτερες περιοχές με εικόνα θαμβής υάλου επί ασθενοιύς με πνευμονία εκ Pneumocystis carinii.
Το εύρημα αυτό είναι κύριο ακτινολογικό χαρακτηριστικό σε ασθενείς με πνευμονία εξ υπερευαισθησίας (εξωγενής αλλεργική κυψελιδίτιδα, οξεία διάμεση πνευμ΄νία, μη ειδική διάμεση πνευμονία, πνευμονία από πνευμονιοκύτις carinnii, και, επιπλέον, σαρκοείδωση, κυψελιδική πρωτεΐνωση και βροχοκυψελιδικό καρκίνωμα. Η συνύπαρξη εικόνας 'θαμβής υάλου και παχύνσεως των διαφραγματίων, καλούμενος 'ακατάστατο παλκόστρωτο (crazy paving) μη ειδικό εύρημα που συναντάται στην κυψελιδική πρωτεΐνωση, την υποξεία πνευμονική αιμορραγία, την ιογενή πνευμονία, και το πνευμονικό οίδημα. Εάν η εικόνα θαμβής υάλου συνοδεύεται με εξ έλεξεως βρογχεκτασίες ή άλλο εύρημα ινώσεως είναι πιθανό ότι αντιστοιχεί σε λεπτή διάμεση ίνωση.
Παρεγχυμνατική πύκνωση αναγνωρίζεται συχνότερα σε ασθενείς με βακτηριακή πνευμονία, και, επίσης, συγκλειστική βρογχιολίτιδα-οργανούμενη πνευμονία, χρόνια ηωσινοφιλική πνευμονία (8). Παρεγχυματικές σκιάσεις εκτεινόμενες απόμ εικόνες θαμβής υάλου προς παρεγχυματική πύκνωση αναγνωρίζονται σε καταστάσεις, όπως με πνευμονικό οίδημα (3,9,10,11), ARDS, (12,13,14), υογενή πνευμ΄νια, φυματίωση, και μυκητίαση πνεύμονος, πνευμονία εξ ακτινοβολίας, έμφρακτο, και βρογχιολοκυψελιδικό καρκίνωμα (14,15,16,17,18,19). Τα κλινικά και ακτινολογικά ευρήματα, συνήθως, είναι επαρκή για την τεκμηρίωση των παθολογικών αυτών καταστάσεων. Εν τούτοις, σε επιλεγμένες περιπτώσεις Η HRCTμπρεί να εισφέρει στη διαχείριση παρόμοιων περιπτώσεων αναγνωρίζοντας παθολογικά ευρήματα, όπου η απλή ακτινογραφία θώρακος παραμένει φυσιολογική, ή σε περιπτώσεις όπου απαιτείται η διευκρίνιση συγχυτικών ακτινολογικών εικόνων, ή προκειμένου να αποκριθούμε για την έκταση της παθήσεως. Επ΄αυτο΄, η HRCT μπορεί να διαδραματίσει σημαντικό ρόλο στην αναγνώριση λοιμώξεων επί ανοσοκατεσταλμένων ασθενών.
Εικόνα 2. χρόνια ηωσινοφιλική πνευμονία. Αναγνωρίζονται: [ι] υποπλεύρια πύκνωση αεροχώρων [ιι] εμβαλωματικές εικόνες θαμβής υάλου, [ιιι] γραμμξικές σκιάσεις, που συνήθως εμφανίζονται στη λύση τους, Όπως διακρίνεται, οι βλάβες αυτές, συρρέουν, συνήθως, στα άνω πνευμονικά πεδία.
βλεπε: πνευμονία εξ υπερευαισθησίας (αλλεργική εξωγενής κυψελιδίτις), ηωσινοφιλικές πνευμονοπάθειες (ιδιοπαθής πνευμονική ηωσηνοφιλία, οξεία και χρόνια ηωσινοφιλική πνευμονία, υπερηωσινοφιλικό σύνδρομο), σύνδρομο Churg-Strauss, βρογχοκεντρική κοκκιωμάτωση, συγκλειστική βρογχιολίτις-οργανούμενη πνευμονία, αναπνευστική βρογχιολίτις-διάμεση πνευμονοπάθεια, αποφολιδωτική διάμεση πνευμονία, οξεία διάμεση πνευμονία, μη ειδική ιδιοπαθής διάμεση πνευμονία, κυψελιδική πρωτεΐνωση, λιποειδής πνευμονία, διάχυτη πνευμονία, πνευμονία από πνευμονοκύστι carinii, πνευμονία από κυτταρομεγαλοϊό, λοιπές ιογενείς πνευμονίες, πνευμονία από μυκόπλασμα, διάχυτη κυψελιδική αιμορραγία, σύνδρομο GoodPasture, ιδιοπαθής πνευμονική αιμοσιδήρωση, πνευμονικό οίδημα και ARDS.
1. Webb WR, Müller NL, Naidich DP. Standardized terms for high-resolution computed tomography of the lung: a proposed glossary. J Thorac Imag 1993;8:167-185.
2. Austin JH, Müller NL, Friedman PJ, et al. Glossary of terms for CT of the lungs: recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee of the Fleischner Society. Radiology 1996;200:327-331.
3. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Giraud F, et al. Computed tomography assessment of ground-glass opacity: semiology and significance. J Thorac Imag 1993;8:249-264.
4. Remy-Jardin M, Giraud F, Remy J, et al. Importance of ground-glass attenuation in chronic diffuse infiltrative lung disease: pathologic-CT correlation. Radiology 1993;189:693-698.
5. Leung AN, Miller RR, Müller NL. Parenchymal opacification in chronic infiltrative lung diseases: CT-pathologic correlation. Radiology 1993;188:209-214.
6. Müller NL, Colby TV. Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias: high-resolution CT and histologic findings. Radiographics 1997;17:1016-1022.
7. Gay SE, Kazerooni EA, Toews GB, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: predicting response to therapy and survival. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1063-1072.
8. Hommeyer SH, Godwin JD, Takasugi JE. Computed tomography of air-space disease. Radiol Clin North Am 1991;29:1065-1084.
9. Murata K, Herman PG, Khan A, et al. Intralobular distribution of oleic acid-induced pulmonary edema in the pig: evaluation by high-resolution CT. Invest Radiol 1989;24:647-653.
10. Todo G, Herman PG. High-resolution computed tomography of the pig lung. Invest Radiol 1986;21:689-696.
11. Primack SL, Hartman TE, Lee KS, et al. Pulmonary nodules and the CT halo sign. Radiology 1994;190:513-515.
12. Greene R. Adult respiratory distress syndrome: acute alveolar damage. Radiology 1987;163:57-66.
13. Webb WR. High-resolution CT of the lung parenchyma. Radiol Clin North Am 1989;27:1085-1097.
14. Naidich DP, Zerhouni EA, Hutchins GM, et al. Computed tomography of the pulmonary parenchyma: part 1. Distal air-space disease. J Thorac Imag 1985;1:39-53.
15. Meziane MA, Hruban RH, Zerhouni EA, et al. High resolution CT of the lung parenchyma with pathologic correlation. Radiographics 1988;8:27-54.
16. Ikezoe J, Takashima S, Morimoto S, et al. CT appearance of acute radiation-induced injury in the lung. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988;150:765-770.
17. Ikezoe J, Morimoto S, Takashima S, et al. Acute radiation-induced pulmonary injury: computed tomographic evaluation. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 1990;11:409-416.
18. Logan PM. Thoracic manifestations of external beam radiotherapy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:569-577.
19. Adler B, Padley S, Miller RR, et al. High-resolution CT of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:275-277.
20. Ando M, Suga M. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1997;3:391-395.
21. Chryssanthopoulos C, Fink JN. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. J Asthma 1983;20:285-296.
22. Fraser RS, Müller NL, Colman N, et al. Inhalation of organic dusts. In: Fraser RS, Müller NL. Colman N, et al., eds. Diagnosis of diseases of the chest, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1999:2361-2385.
23. Colby T, Carrington C. Interstitial Lung Disease. In: Thurlbeck WM, ed. Pathology of the lung. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers, 1995:589-737.
24. Tasaka S, Kanazawa M, Kawai C, et al. Fatal diffuse alveolar damage from bird fanciers’ lung. Respiration 1997;64:307-309.
25. Cook PG, Wells IP, McGavin CR. The distribution of pulmonary shadowing in farmer’s lung. Clin Radiol 1988;39:21-27.
26. Silver SF, Müller NL, Miller RR, et al. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: evaluation with CT. Radiology 1989;173:441-445.
27. Seal RME, Hapke EJ, Thomas GO, et al. The pathology of the acute and chronic stages of farmer’s lung. Thorax 1968;23:469.
28. Hargreave F, Hinson KF, Reid L, et al. The radiological appearances of allergic alveolitis due to bird sensitivity (bird fancier’s lung). Clin Radiol 1972;23:1-6.
29. Mindell HJ. Roentgen findings in farmer’s lung. Radiology 1970;97:341-349
30. Yoshizawa Y, Ohtani Y, Hayakawa H, et al. Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis in Japan: a nationwide epidemiologic survey. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103:315-320.
31. Hapke EJ, Seal RME, Thomas GO, et al. Farmer’s lung: a clinical, radiographic, functional and serologic correlation of acute and chronic stages. Thorax 1968;23:451-468.
32. Hansell DM, Moskovic E. High-resolution computed tomography in extrinsic allergic alveolitis. Clin Radiol 1991;43:8-12.
33. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Wallaert B, et al. Subacute and chronic bird breeder hypersensitivity pneumonitis: sequential evaluation with CT and correlation with lung function tests and bronchoalveolar lavage. Radiology 1993;198:111-118.
34. Hansell DM, Wells AU, Padley SP, et al. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: correlation of individual CT patterns with functional abnormalities. Radiology 1996;199:123-128.
35. Small JH, Flower CD, Traill ZC, et al. Air-trapping in extrinsic allergic alveolitis on computed tomography. Clin Radiol 1996;51:684-688.
36. Chung MH, Edinburgh KJ, Webb EM, et al. Mixed infiltrative and obstructive disease on high-resolution CT: differential diagnosis and functional correlates in a consecutive series. J Thorac Imaging
37. Arakawa H, Webb WR. Air-trapping on expiratory high-resolution CT scans in the absence of inspiratory scan abnormalities: correlation with pulmonary function tests and differential diagnosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:1349-1353.
38. Adler BD, Padley SP, Müller NL, et al. Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis: high-resolution CT and radiographic features in 16 patients. Radiology 1992;185:91-95.
39. Lynch DA, Newell JD, Logan PM, et al. Can CT distinguish hypersensitivity pneumonitis from idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995;165:807-811.
40. Grenier P, Valeyre D, Cluzel P, et al. Chronic diffuse interstitial lung disease: diagnostic value of chest radiography and high-resolution CT. Radiology 1991;179:123-132.
41. Lynch DA, Rose CS, Way D, et al. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: sensitivity of high-resolution CT in a population-based study. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:469-472.
42. Buschman DL, Gamsu G, Waldron JA, et al. Chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis: use of CT in diagnosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:957-960.
43. Swensen SJ, Aughenbaugh GL, Myers JL. Diffuse lung disease: diagnostic accuracy of CT in patients undergoing surgical biopsy of the lung. Radiology 1997;205:229-234.
44. Godwin JD, Müller NL, Takasugi JE. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: CT findings. Radiology 1988;169:609-613.
45. Murch CR, Carr DH. Computed tomography appearances of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Clin Radiol 1989;40:240-243.
46. Müller NL, Staples CA, Miller RR, et al. Disease activity in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: CT and pathologic correlation. Radiology 1987;165:731-734.
47. Hartman TE, Primack SL, Swensen SJ, et al. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia: thin-section CT findings in 22 patients. Radiology 1993;187:787-790.
48. Warren CP, Tse KS, Cherniack RM. Mechanical properties of the lung in extrinsic allergic alveolitis. Thorax 1978;33:315-321.
49. Allen JN, Davis WB. Eosinophilic lung diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:1423-1438.
50. Bain GA, Flower CD. Pulmonary eosinophilia. Eur J Radiol 1996;23:3-8.
51. Kim Y, Lee KS, Choi DC, et al. The spectrum of eosinophilic lung disease: radiologic findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1997;21:920-930.
52. Connolly B, Manson D, Eberhard A, et al. CT appearance of pulmonary vasculitis in children. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996; 167:901-904.
53. Primack SL, Müller NL. Radiologic manifestations of the systemic autoimmune diseases. Clin Chest Med 1998;19:573-586.
54. Gaensler EA, Carrington CB. Peripheral opacities in chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: the photographic negative of pulmonary edema. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1977;128:1-13.
55. Pearson DJ, Rosenow EC. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia (Carrington’s): a follow-up study. Mayo Clin Proc 1978;53:73-78.
56. Dines DE. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: a roentgenographic diagnosis [editorial]. Mayo Clin Proc 1978;53:129-130.
57. Jederlinic PJ, Sicilian L, Gaensler EA. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: a report of 19 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine 1988;67:154-162.
58. Libby DM, Murphy TF, Edwards A, et al. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: an unusual cause of acute respiratory failure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980;122:497-500.
59. Mayo JR, Müller NL, Road J, et al. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: CT findings in six cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;153:727-730.
60. Ebara H, Ikezoe J, Johkoh T, et al. Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia: evolution of chest radiograms and CT features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1994;18:737-744.
61. Müller NL, Staples CA, Miller RR. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: CT features in 14 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990;154:983-987.
62. Bartter T, Irwin RS, Nash G, et al. Idiopathic bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia with peripheral infiltrates on chest roentgenogram. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:273-279.
63. Müller NL, Guerry-Force ML, Staples CA, et al. Differential diagnosis of bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia and usual interstitial pneumonia: clinical, functional, and radiologic findings. Radiology 1987;162:151-156.
64. Glazer HS, Levitt RG, Shackelford GD. Peripheral pulmonary infiltrates in sarcoidosis. Chest 1984;86:741-744.
65. Allen JN, Pacht ER, Gadek JE, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia as a reversible cause of noninfectious respiratory failure. N Engl J Med 1989;321:569-574.
66. Hayakawa H, Sato A, Toyoshima M, et al. A clinical study of idiopathic eosinophilic pneumonia. Chest 1994;105:1462-1466.
67. Cheon JE, Lee KS, Jung GS, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia: radiographic and CT findings in six patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996;167:1195-1199.
68. King MA, Pope-Harman AL, Allen JN, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia: radiologic and clinical features. Radiology 1997; 203:715-719.
69. Winn RE, Kollef MH, Meyer JI. Pulmonary involvement in the hypereosinophilic syndrome. Chest 1994;105:656-660.
70. Epstein DM, Taormina V, Gefter WB, et al. The hypereosinophilic syndrome. Radiology 1981;140:59-62.
71. Kang EY, Shim JJ, Kim JS, et al. Pulmonary involvement of idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome: CT findings in five patients. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1997;21:612-615.
72. Masi AT, Hunder GG, Lie JT, et al. The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of Churg-Strauss syndrome (allergic granulomatosis and angiitis). Arthritis Rheum 1990;33:1094-1100.
73. Buschman DL, Waldron Jr JA, King Jr TE. Churg-Strauss pulmonary vasculitis: high-resolution computed tomography scanning and pathologic findings. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:458-461.
74. Worthy SA, Müller NL, Hansell DM, et al. Churg-Strauss syndrome: the spectrum of pulmonary CT findings in 17 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:297-300.
75. Ottesen EA, Nutman TB. Tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Annu Rev Med 1992;43:417-424.
76. Im JG, Whang HY, Kim WS, et al. Pleuropulmonary paragonimiasis: radiologic findings in 71 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:39-43.
77. Gefter WB. The spectrum of pulmonary aspergillosis. J Thorac Imag 1992;7:56-74.
78. Logan PM, Müller NL. High-resolution computed tomography and pathologic findings in pulmonary aspergillosis: a pictorial essay. Can Assoc Radiol J 1996;47:444-452.
79. Ward S, Heyneman LE, Flint JD, et al. Bronchocentric granulomatosis: computed tomographic findings in five patients. Clin Radiol 2000;55:296-300.
80. Yousem SA. The histological spectrum of chronic necrotizing forms of pulmonary aspergillosis. Hum Pathol 1997;28:650-656.
81. Lynch DA, Hay T, Newell Jr JD, et al. Pediatric diffuse lung disease: diagnosis and classification using high-resolution CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:713-718.
82. Epler GR, Colby TV, McLoud TC, et al. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1985;312:152-158.
83. Myers JL, Colby TV. Pathologic manifestations of bronchiolitis, constrictive bronchiolitis, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia and diffuse panbronchiolitis. Clin Chest Med 1993;14:611-623.
84. Epler GR, Snider GL, Gaensler EA, et al. Bronchiolitis and bronchitis in connective tissue disease. JAMA 1979;242:528-532.
85. Colby TV, Myers JL. The clinical and histologic spectrum of bronchiolitis obliterans including bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP). Semin Respir Dis 1992;13:119-133.
86. Epler GR. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: definition and clinical features. Chest 1992;102(S):2-6.
87. Camus P, Lombard J-N, Perrichon M, et al. Bronchiolitis obliterans-organizing pneumonia in patients taking acebutolol or amiodarone. Thorax 1989;44:711-715.
88. Camp M, Mehta JB, Whitson M. Bronchiolitis obliterans and Nocardia asteroides infection of the lung. Chest 1987;92:1107-1108.
89. Geddes DM. BOOP and COP. Thorax 1991;46:545-547.
90. du Bois RM, Geddes DM. Obliterative bronchiolitis, cryptogenic organizing pneumonitis and bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia: three names for two different conditions. Eur Respir J 1991;4:774-775.
91. Hansell DM. What are bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP) and cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP)? Clin Radiol 1992;45:369-370.
92. Davison AG, Heard BE, McAllister WC, et al. Cryptogenic organizing pneumonitis. Quart J Med 1983;52:382-393.
93. ATS/ERS International Multidisciplinary Consensus Classification of Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias: General Principles and Guidelines. American Thoracic Society, Toronto, May 2000.
94. King TE. Overview of bronchiolitis. Clin Chest Med 1993;14:607-610.
95. Epler GR, Colby TV, McLoud TC, et al. Idiopathic bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1985;312:152-159.
96. Chandler PW, Shin MS, Friedman SE, et al. Radiographic manifestations of bronchiolitis obliterans with organizing pneumonia vs. usual interstitial pneumonia. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986;147:899-906.
97. Miki Y, Hatabu H, Takahashi M, et al. Computed tomography of bronchiolitis obliterans. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1988;12:512-514.
98. Bouchardy LM, Kuhlman JE, Ball WC, et al. CT findings in bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia (BOOP) with radiographic, clinical, and histologic correlation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993;17:352-357.
99. Lee KS, Kullnig P, Hartman TE, et al. Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia: CT findings in 43 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162:543-546.
100. Akira M, Yamamoto S, Sakatani M. Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia manifesting as multiple large nodules or masses. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:291-295.
101. Nishimura K, Itoh H. High-resolution computed tomographic features of bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Chest 1992;102:26S-31S.
102. Gruden JF, Webb WR, Warnock M. Centrilobular opacities in the lung on high-resolution CT: diagnostic considerations and pathologic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162:569-574.
103. Johkoh T, Müller NL, Cartier Y, et al. Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias: diagnostic accuracy of thin-section CT in 129 patients. Radiology 1999;211:555-560.
104. Katzenstein AL, Myers JL. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: clinical relevance of pathologic classification. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1301-1315.
105. Katzenstein AL, Fiorelli RF. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia/fibrosis: histologic features and clinical significance. Am J Surg Pathol 1994;18:136-147.
106. Park JS, Lee KS, Kim JS, et al. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia with fibrosis: radiographic and CT findings in seven patients. Radiology 1995;195:645-648.
107. Nishiyama O, Kondoh Y, Taniguchi H, et al. Serial high resolution CT findings in nonspecific interstitial pneumonia/fibrosis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2000;24:41-46.
108. Cottin V, Donsbeck AV, Revel D, et al. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia: individualization of a clinicopathologic entity in a series of 12 patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1286-1293.
109. Kim TS, Lee KS, Chung MP, et al. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia with fibrosis: high-resolution CT and pathologic findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:1645-1650.
110. Kim EY, Lee KS, Chung MP, et al. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia with fibrosis: serial high-resolution CT findings with functional correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:949-953.
111. Colby TV. Bronchiolitis. Pathologic considerations. Am J Clin Pathol 1998;109:101-109.
112. Müller NL, Miller RR. Diseases of the bronchioles: CT and histopathologic findings. Radiology 1995;196:3-12.
113. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Gosselin B, et al. Lung parenchymal changes secondary to cigarette smoking: pathologic-CT correlations. Radiology 1993;186:643-651.
114. King TE. Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease. Clin Chest Med 1993;14:693-698.
115. Myers JL, Veal CF, Shin MS, et al. Respiratory bronchiolitis causing interstitial lung disease: a clinicopathologic study of six cases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:880-884.
116. Yousem SA, Colby TV, Gaensler EA. Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease and its relationship to desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Mayo Clin Proc 1989;64:1373-1380.
117. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Boulenguez C, et al. Morphologic effects of cigarette smoking on airways and pulmonary parenchyma in healthy adult volunteers: CT evaluation and correlation with pulmonary function tests. Radiology 1993;186:107-115.
118. Heyneman LE, Ward S, Lynch DA, et al. Respiratory bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial pneumonia: different entities or part of the spectrum of the same disease process? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:1617-1622.
119. Gruden JF, Webb WR. CT findings in a proved case of respiratory bronchiolitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;161:44-46.
120. Park J, Tuder R, Brown KK, et al. Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease: CT-pathologic correlation. Radiology 1998;209:179.
121. Holt RM, Schmidt RA, Godwin JD, et al. High resolution CT in respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993;17:46-50.
122. Carrington CB, Gaensler EA, Coute RE, et al. Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1978;298:801-809.
123. Gaensler EA, Goff AM, Prowse CM. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1966;274:113-128.
124. Feigin DS, Friedman PJ. Chest radiography in DIP: a review of 37 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1980;134:91-99.
125. Katzenstein ALA, Myers JL, Mazur MT. Acute interstitial pneumonia: a clinicopathologic, ultrastructural, and cell kinetic study. Am J Surg Pathol 1986;10:256-267.
126. Primack SL, Hartman TE, Ikezoe J, et al. Acute interstitial pneumonia: radiographic and CT findings in nine patients. Radiology 1993;188:817-820.
127. Olson J, Colby TV, Elliott CG. Hamman-Rich syndrome revisited. Mayo Clin Proc 1990;65:1538-1548.
128. Akira M. Computed tomography and pathologic findings in fulminant forms of idiopathic interstitial pneumonia. J Thorac Imag 1999;14:76-84.
129. Johkoh T, Müller NL, Taniguchi H, et al. Acute interstitial pneumonia: thin-section CT findings in 36 patients. Radiology 1999; 211:859-863.
130. Ichikado K, Johkoh T, Ikezoe J, et al. Acute interstitial pneumonia: high-resolution CT findings correlated with pathology. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;168:333-338.
131. Rosen SH, Castleman B, Liebow AA. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. N Engl J Med 1958;258:1123-1144.
132. Wang BM, Stern EJ, Schmidt RA, et al. Diagnosing pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: a review and an update. Chest 1997;111:460-466.
133. Sargent EN, Morgan WKC. Silicosis. In: Preger L, ed. Induced disease. Drug, irradiation, occupation. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1980:297-315.
134. Bedrossian CW, Luna MA, Conklin RH, et al. Alveolar proteinosis as a consequence of immunosuppression: a hypothesis based on clinical and pathologic observations. Hum Pathol 1980; 11[Suppl]:527-535.
135. Carnovale R, Zornoza J, Goldman AM, et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: its association with hematologic malignancy and lymphoma. Radiology 1977;122:303-306.
136. Davidson JM, MacLeod WM. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Br J Dis Chest 1969;63:13-28.
137. Teja K, Cooper PH, Squires JE, et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in four siblings. N Engl J Med 1981;305:1390-1392.
138. Miller RR, Churg AM, Hutcheon M, et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and aluminum dust exposure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984;130:312-315.
139. Thurlbeck WM, Miller RR, Müller NL, et al. Chronic infiltrative lung disease. In: Diffuse diseases of the lung: a team approach. Philadelphia: Decker, 1991:102-115.
140. Kariman K, Kylstra JA, Spock A. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: prospective clinical experience in 23 patients for 15 years. Lung 1984;162:223-231.
141. Rogers RM, Levin DC, Gray BA, et al. Physiologic effects of bronchopulmonary lavage in alveolar proteinosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;118:255-264.
142. Prakash UBS, Barham SS, Carpenter HA, et al. Pulmonary alveolar phospholipoproteinosis: experience with 34 cases and a review. Mayo Clin Proc 1987;62:499-518.
143. Ramirez RJ. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1964;92:571-577.
144. Genereux GP. CT of acute and chronic distal air space (alveolar) disease. Semin Roentgenol 1984;19:211-221.
145. Lee KN, Levin DL, Webb WR, et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: high-resolution CT, chest radiographic, and functional correlations. Chest 1997;111:989-995.
146. Miller PA, Ravin CE, Walker Smith GJ, et al. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis with interstitial involvement. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1981;137:1069-1071.
147. Zimmer WE, Chew FS. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis [clinical conference]. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;161:26.
148. Franquet T, Giménez A, Bordes R, et al. The crazy-paving pattern in exogenous lipoid pneumonia: CT-pathologic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;170:315-317.
149. Johkoh T, Itoh H, Müller NL, et al. Crazy-paving appearance at thin-section CT: spectrum of disease and pathologic findings. Radiology 1999;211:155-160.
150. Joshi RR, Cholankeril JV. Computed tomography in lipoid pneumonia. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1985;9:211-213.
151. Seo JB, Im JG, Kim WS, et al. Shark liver oil-induced lipoid pneumonia in pigs: correlation of thin-section CT and histopathologic findings. Radiology 1999;212:88-96.
152. Hugosson CO, Riff EJ, Moore CC, et al. Lipoid pneumonia in infants: a radiological-pathological study. Pediatr Radiol 1991;21:193-197.
153. Lee KS, Müller NL, Hale V, et al. Lipoid pneumonia: CT findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1995;19:48-51.
154. Murata K, Itoh H, Todo G, et al. Centrilobular lesions of the lung: demonstration by high-resolution CT and pathologic correlation. Radiology 1986;161:641-645.
155. Im JG, Itoh H, Shim YS, et al. Pulmonary tuberculosis: CT findings–early active disease and sequential change with antituberculous therapy. Radiology 1993;186:653-660.
156. Murata K, Khan A, Herman PG. Pulmonary parenchymal disease: evaluation with high-resolution CT. Radiology 1989;170:629-635.
157. Genereux GP. The Fleischner lecture: computed tomography of diffuse pulmonary disease. J Thorac Imag 1989;4:50-87.
158. Hartman TE, Primack SL, Müller NL, et al. Diagnosis of thoracic complications in AIDS: accuracy of CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994;162:547-553.
159. Primack SL, Müller NL. High-resolution computed tomography in acute diffuse lung disease in the immunocompromised patient. Radiol Clin North Am 1994;32:731-744.
160. Kuhlman JE. Pneumocystic infections: the radiologist’s perspective. Radiology 1996;198:623-635.
161. McGuinness G. Changing trends in the pulmonary manifestations of AIDS. Radiol Clin North Am 1997;35:1029-1082.
162. Hoover DR, Saah AJ, Bacellar H, et al. Clinical manifestations of AIDS in the era of Pneumocystis prophylaxis. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1922-1926.
163. Hirschtick RE, Glassroth J, Jordan MC, et al. Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:845-851.
164. Markowitz GS, Concepcion L, Factor SM, et al. Autopsy patterns of disease among subgroups of an inner-city Bronx AIDS population. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996;13:48-54.
165. McGuinness G, Gruden JF. Viral and Pneumocystis carinii infections of the lung in the immunocompromised host. J Thorac Imag 1999;14:25-36.
166. Stover DE. Pneumocystis carinii: an update. Pulmon Perspect 1994;11:3-5.
167. Foley NM, Griffiths MH, Miller RF. Histologically atypical Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Thorax 1993;48:996-1001.
168. Travis WD, Pittaluga S, Lipschik GY, et al. Atypical pathologic manifestations of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Surg Path 1990;14:615-625.
169. Murray JF, Mills J. Pulmonary infectious complications of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:1356-1372.
170. Suster B, Ackerman M, Orenstein M, et al. Pulmonary manifestations of AIDS: review of 106 episodes. Radiology 1987;161:87-93.
171. DeLorenzo LJ, Huang CT, Maguire GP, et al. Roentgenographic patterns of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in 104 patients with AIDS. Chest 1987;91:323-327.
172. Naidich DP, Garay SM, Leitman BS, et al. Radiographic manifestations of pulmonary disease in the acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Semin Roentgenol 1987;22:14-30.
173. Goodman PC. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Thorac Imag 1991;6:16-21.
174. Goodman PC, Daley C, Minagi H. Spontaneous pneumothorax in AIDS patients with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986;147:29-31.
175. Sandhu JS, Goodman PC. Pulmonary cysts associated with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. Radiology 1989;173:33-35.
176. Barrio JL, Suarez M, Rodriguez JL, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia presenting as cavitating and noncavitating solitary pulmonary nodules in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am Rev Resp Dis 1986;134:1094-1096.
177. Radin DR, Baker EL, Klatt EC, et al. Visceral and nodal calcification in patients with AIDS-related Pneumocystis carinii infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990;154:27-31.
178. Wasser LS, Brown E, Talavera W. Miliary PCP in AIDS. Chest 1989;96:693-695.
179. Boiselle PM, Crans Jr CA, Kaplan MA. The changing face of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;172:1301-1309.
180. Chaffey MH, Klein JS, Gamsu G, et al. Radiographic distribution of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS treated with prophylactic inhaled pentamidine. Radiology 1990;175:715-719.
181. Chow C, Templeton PA, White CS. Lung cysts associated with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: radiographic characteristics, natural history, and complications. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;161:527-531.
182. Naidich DP, Garay SM, Goodman PC, et al. Pulmonary manifestations of AIDS. In: Radiology of acquired immune deficiency syndrome. New York: Raven, 1988:47-77.
183. Kuhlman JE, Kavuru M, Fishman EK, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: spectrum of parenchymal CT findings. Radiology 1990;175:711-714.
184. Bergin CJ, Wirth RL, Berry GJ, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: CT and HRCT observations. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1990;14:756-759.
185. Gruden JF, Huang L, Turner J, et al. High-resolution CT in the evaluation of clinically suspected Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients with normal, equivocal, or nonspecific radiographic findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;169:967-975.
186. Schinella RA, Clancey C, Fazzini E, et al. Pneumocystis carinii as a cause of pulmonary fibrosis (abst). Am Rev Res Dis 1986;133A:180.
187. McGuinness G, Naidich DP, Garay SM, et al. AIDS associated bronchiectasis: CT features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993; 17:260-266.
188. Gurney JW, Bates FT. Pulmonary cystic disease: comparison of Pneumocystis carinii pneumatoceles and bullous emphysema due to intravenous drug abuse. Radiology 1989;173:27-31.
189. Kuhlman JE, Knowles MC, Fishman EK, et al. Premature bullous pulmonary damage in AIDS: CT diagnosis. Radiology 1989; 173:23-26.
190. Klein JS, Warnock M, Webb WR, et al. Cavitating and noncavitating granulomas in AIDS patients with Pneumocystis pneumonitis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;152:753-754.
191. Sheikh S, Madiraju K, Steiner P, et al. Bronchiectasis in pediatric AIDS. Chest 1997;112:1202-1207.
192. Feuerstein I, Archer A, Pluda JM, et al. Thin-walled cavities, cysts, and pneumothorax in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: further observations with histopathologic correlation. Radiology 1990;174:697-702.
193. Panicek DM. Cystic pulmonary lesions in patients with AIDS [editorial]. Radiology 1989;173:12-14.
194. Huang RM, Naidich DP, Lubat E, et al. Septic pulmonary emboli: CT-radiographic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;153:41-45.
195. Kuhlman JE, Fishman EK, Teigen C. Pulmonary septic emboli: diagnosis with CT. Radiology 1990;174:211-213.
196. Mayor B, Schnyder P, Giron J, et al. Mediastinal and hilar lymphadenopathy due to Pneumocystis carinii infection in AIDS patients: CT features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1994;18:408-411.
197. Bianco R, Arborio G, Mariani P, et al. [Pneumocystis carinii lung infections in AIDS patients: a study with high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT)]. Radiol Med (Torino) 1996;91:370-376.
198. Gruden JF, Klein JS, Webb WR. Percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy in AIDS: analysis in 32 patients. Radiology 1993;189:567-571.
199. McGuinness G, Gruden JF, Bhalla M, et al. AIDS-related airway disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997;168:67-77.
200. Edinburgh KJ, Jasmer RM, Huang L, et al. Multiple pulmonary nodules in AIDS: usefulness of CT in distinguishing among potential causes. Radiology 2000;214:427-432.
201. Wassermann K, Pothoff G, Kirn E, et al. Chronic Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS. Chest 1993;104:667-672.
202. Kang EY, Staples CA, McGuinness G, et al. Detection and differential diagnosis of pulmonary infections and tumors in patients with AIDS: value of chest radiography versus CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1996;166:15-19.
203. Richards PJ, Riddell L, Reznek RH, et al. High resolution computed tomography in HIV patients with suspected Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and a normal chest radiograph. Clin Radiol 1996;51:689-693.
204. Kirshenbaum KJ, Burke R, Fanapour F, et al. Pulmonary high-resolution computed tomography versus gallium scintigraphy: diagnostic utility in the diagnosis of patients with AIDS who have chest symptoms and normal or equivocal chest radiographs. J Thorac Imag 1998;13:52-57.
205. Brown MJ, Miller RR, Müller NL. Acute lung disease in the immunocompromised host: CT and pathologic examination findings. Radiology 1994;190:247-254.
206. Armitage JO. Bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1994;330:827-838.
207. Crawford SE, Hackman RC, Clark JG. Open-lung biopsy diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates after marrow transplantation. Chest 1988;94:949-953.
208. Maurer JR, Tullis E, Grossman RF, et al. Infectious complications following isolated lung transplantation. Chest 1992;101:1056-1059.
209. Herman S, Rappaport D, Weisbrod G, et al. Single-lung transplantation: imaging features. Radiology 1989;170:89-93.
210. O’Donovan P. Imaging of complications of lung transplantation. RadioGraphics 1993;13:787-796.
211. Moore EH, Webb WR, Amend WJC. Pulmonary infections in renal transplantation patients treated with cyclosporin. Radiology 1988;167:97-103.
212. Winer-Muram HT, Gurney JW, Bozeman PM, et al. Pulmonary complications after bone marrow transplantation. Radiol Clin North Am 1996;34:97-117.
213. Millar AB, Patou GM, Miller RF, et al. Cytomegalovirus in the lungs of patients with AIDS: respiratory pathogen or passenger? Am Rev Resp Dis 1990;141:1474-1477.
214. Wallace MJ, Hannah J. Cytomegalovirus pneumonitis in patients with AIDS: findings in an autopsy series. Chest 1987;92:198-203.
215. Klatt EC, Shibata D. Cytomegalovirus infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: clinical and autopsy findings. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1988;112:540-544.
216. Miles PR, Baughman RP, Linnemann CC. Cytomegalovirus in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in patients with AIDS. Chest 1990;97:1072-1076.
217. Hoover DR, Saah AJ, Bacellar H, et al. Clinical manifestations of AIDS in the era of Pneumocystis prophylaxis. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1922-1926.
218. Aafedt BC, Halvorsen R, Tylen U, et al. Cytomegalovirus pneumonia: computed tomography findings. Can Assoc Radiol J 1990;41:276-280.
219. Kang EY, Patz EF, Jr., Müller NL. Cytomegalovirus pneumonia in transplant patients: CT findings. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996;20:295-299.
220. McGuinness G, Scholes JV, Garay SM, et al. Cytomegalovirus pneumonitis: spectrum of parenchymal CT findings with pathologic correlation in 21 AIDS patients. Radiology 1994;192:451-459.
221. Abe K, Suzuki K, Kamata N, et al. [High-resolution CT findings in cytomegalovirus pneumonitis after bone marrow transplantation]. Nippon Igaku Hoshasen Gakkai Zasshi 1998;58:7-11.
222. Matar LD, McAdams HP, Palmer SM, et al. Respiratory viral infections in lung transplant recipients: radiologic findings with clinical correlation. Radiology 1999;213:735-742.
223. Palmer SM, Jr., Henshaw NG, Howell DN, et al. Community respiratory viral infection in adult lung transplant recipients. Chest 1998; 113:944-950.
224. Feldman S. Varicella-zoster virus pneumonitis. Chest 1994; 106:22S-27S.
225. Gogos CA, Bassaris HP, Vagenakis AG. Varicella pneumonia in adults. A review of pulmonary manifestations, risk factors and treatment. Respiration 1992;59:339-343.
226. Kim JS, Ryu CW, Lee SI, et al. High-resolution CT findings of varicella-zoster pneumonia. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;172:113-116.
227. Fraisse P, Faller M, Rey D, et al. Recurrent varicella pneumonia complicating an endogenous reactivation of chickenpox in an HIV-infected adult patient. Eur Respir J 1998;11:776-778.
228. Krinzman S, Basgoz N, Kradin R, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus-associated infections in adult recipients of solid organ transplants. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998;17:202-210.
229. Ko JP, Shepard JA, Sproule MW, et al. CT manifestations of respiratory syncytial virus infection in lung transplant recipients. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2000;24:235-241.
230. Mansel JK, Rosenow ECD, Smith TF, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia. Chest 1989;95:639-646.
231. Tanaka N, Matsumoto T, Kuramitsu T, et al. High resolution CT findings in community-acquired pneumonia. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996;20:600-608.
232. Chan ED, Kalayanamit T, Lynch DA, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated bronchiolitis causing severe restrictive lung disease in adults: report of three cases and literature review. Chest 1999;115:1188-1194.
233. Putman CE, Curtis AM, Simeone JF, et al. Mycoplasma pneumonia. Clinical and roentgenographic patterns. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1975;124:417-422.
234. Gückel C, Benz-Bohm G, Widemann B. Mycoplasmal pneumonias in childhood. Roentgen features, differential diagnosis and review of literature. Pediatr Radiol 1989;19:499-503.
235. Reittner P, Müller NL, Heyneman L, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia: radiographic and high-resolution CT features in 28 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;174:37-41.
236. Coultas DB, Samet JM, Butler C. Bronchiolitis obliterans due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae. West J Med 1986;144:471-474.
237. Wohl ME, Chernick V. State of the art: bronchiolitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;118:759-781.
238. Arakawa H, Webb WR, McCowin M, et al. Inhomogeneous lung attenuation at thin-section CT: diagnostic value of expiratory scans. Radiology 1998;206:89-94.
239. Kim CK, Chung CY, Kim JS, et al. Late abnormal findings on high-resolution computed tomography after Mycoplasma pneumonia. Pediatrics 2000;105:372-378.
240. Syrjälä H, Broas M, Suramo I, et al. High-resolution computed tomography for the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27:358-363.
241. Boyce NW, Holdsworth SR. Pulmonary manifestations of the clinical syndrome of acute glomerulonephritis and lung hemorrhage. Am J Kidney Dis 1986;8:31-36.
242. Cheah FK, Sheppard MN, Hansell DM. Computed tomography of diffuse pulmonary haemorrhage with pathological correlation. Clin Radiol 1993;48:89-93.
243. Witte R, Gurney J, Robbins R, et al. Diffuse pulmonary alveolar hemorrhage after bone narrow transplantation: radiographic findings in 39 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991;157:461-464.
244. Primack SL, Miller RR, Müller NL. Diffuse pulmonary hemorrhage: clinical, pathologic, and imaging features. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995;164:295-300.
245. Seely JM, Effmann EL, Müller NL. High-resolution CT of pediatric lung disease: imaging findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168:1269-1275.
246. Ketai LH, Godwin JD. A new view of pulmonary edema and acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Thorac Imag 1998;13:147-171.
247. Gluecker T, Capasso P, Schnyder P, et al. Clinical and radiologic features of pulmonary edema. Radiographics 1999;19:1507-1531; discussion 1532-1533.
248. Webb WR, Stein MG, Finkbeiner WE, et al. Normal and diseased isolated lungs: high-resolution CT. Radiology 1988;166:81-87.
249. Bessis L, Callard P, Gotheil C, et al. High-resolution CT of parenchymal lung disease: precise correlation with histologic findings. Radiographics 1992;12:45-58.
250. Hedlund LW, Vock P, Effmann EL, et al. Hydrostatic pulmonary edema: an analysis of lung density changes by computed tomography. Invest Radiol 1984;19:254-262.
251. Forster BB, Müller NL, Mayo JR, et al. High-resolution computed tomography of experimental hydrostatic pulmonary edema. Chest 1992;101:1434-1437.
252. Scillia P, Delcroix M, Lejeune P, et al. Hydrostatic pulmonary edema: evaluation with thin-section CT in dogs. Radiology 1999;211:161-168.
253. Storto ML, Kee ST, Golden JA, et al. Hydrostatic pulmonary edema: high-resolution CT findings. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995;165:817-820.
254. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:818-824.
255. Goodman LR. Congestive heart failure and adult respiratory distress syndrome. New insights using computed tomography. Radiol Clin North Am 1996;34:33-46.
256. Müller-Leisse C, Klosterhalfen B, Hauptmann S, et al. Computed tomography and histologic results in the early stages of endotoxin-injured pig lungs as a model for adult respiratory distress syndrome. Invest Radiol 1993;28:39-45.
257. Arakawa H, Kurihara Y, Nakajima Y. Pulmonary fat embolism syndrome: CT findings in six patients. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2000;24:24-29.
258. Tagliabue M, Casella TC, Zincone GE, et al. CT and chest radiography in the evaluation of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Radiol 1994;35:230-234.
259. Goodman LR, Fumagalli R, Tagliabue P, et al. Adult respiratory distress syndrome due to pulmonary and extrapulmonary causes: CT, clinical, and functional correlations. Radiology 1999;213:545-552.
260. Owens CM, Evans TW, Keogh BF, et al. Computed tomography in established adult respiratory distress syndrome. Correlation with lung injury score. Chest 1994;106:1815-1821.
261. Desai SR, Wells AU, Rubens MB, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: CT abnormalities at long-term follow-up. Radiology 1999;210:29-35.
262. Saxon RR, Klein JS, Bar MH, et al. Pathogenesis of pulmonary edema during interleukin-2 therapy: correlation of chest radiographic and clinical findings in 54 patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991;156:281-285.
263. Ketai LH, Kelsey CA, Jordan K, et al. Distinguishing hantavirus pulmonary syndrome from acute respiratory distress syndrome by chest radiography: are there different radiographic manifestations of increased alveolar permeability? J Thorac Imag 1998;13:172-177.
264. Bartsch P. High altitude pulmonary edema. Respiration 1997;64:435-443.